Data and Information

DATA| INFORMATION| 123424331911| Your winning lottery ticket number| 140593| Your date of birth| Aaabbbccd| The grades you want in your GCSEs| Data and information Data, information & knowledge Data Data consist of raw facts and figures – it does not have any meaning until it is processed and turned into something useful. It comes in many forms, the main ones being letters, numbers, images, symbols and sound. It is essential that data is available because it is the first step in creating meaningful information.Ex; 123424331911; 140593; aaabbbccd, might not mean anything by themselves, but if it is processed and turned into (the chart below) they turn into something useful. Information Information is data that has been  processed  in such a way as to be  meaningful  to the person who receives it. INFORMATION = DATA + CONTEXT + MEANING INFORMATION = DATA + CONTEXT + MEANING Example of information DATA| 21041926| This has no meaning or context| CONTEXT| It is a British da te| This allows us to register it as 21st April 1926.It still has no meaning and is therefore not information| MEANING| The Birth date of Queen Elizabeth II| This gives usa ll the elements required dor it to be called ‘information’| Knowledge Knowledge is the ability of understanding the relationship between pieces of information and what to actually do with the information. Consider this scenario:  Person puts a finger into very hot water. Data gathered: Finger nerves sends pain data to the brain. Processing:  Brain considers the data and comes up with†¦ Information: Painful finger means it is not in a good place.Action: Brain tells finger to remove itself from hot water. Knowledge: Sticking finger in hot water is a bad idea. Knowledge is having an understanding of the ‘rules’ Types of data Data can be stored in many different formats called ‘data types’. When setting up a database or spreadsheet, it is important that the correct data type is selected for each field. This is because the data type will determine what can be done with the data held in that field e. g. sorting, searching, calculations etc. It also can determine the format in which data is displayed e. g. date/time data type will allow you to pick the format of your choice, 14/05/08, 14 May 2008, 14th May 2008 etc. Finally, some data types are able to automatically validate the data being entered. e. g. : When you use a date/time data type then each date will be automatically checked to ensure that it can actually exist. For example, you would not be able to enter the date 31/02/2008 – it would automatically be rejected or return an error message. Types of data: * Text * Number * Boolean * Date/Time * Image Text A text data type can hold any letter, number, symbol or punctuation mark.It is sometimes referred to as ‘alphanumeric' or ‘string'. The data can be pure text or a combination of text, numbers and symbols. * Name Joe Bloggs * Address 101, Any Street That Town TR34 9RT * Telephone Number 01234 567890 * Car Registration EA05 NXR * Car ColourBlue Telephone numbers need to be stored as a text/string data type because they often begin with a 0 and if they were stored as an integer then the leading zero would be discounted. You are never likely to want to add or multiply telephone numbers so there is no reason to store it as an integer data type. Number A number data type contains numbers.Example: * Weight in Kg12. 25, 19. 99, 199. 99 * Room measurement in metres14. 5 * Temperature (degrees Celsius)37. 5 Types of numbers: * Integers An integer stores whole numbers, either positive or negative. Integers however cannot store numbers with decimal places. * Real Your numerical data might need to be formatted with decimal places. This means it cannot be stored as an integer number. Instead it is known as a  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœreal'  number. You can specify the number of decimal places that you need. * Currency When you choose to format numerical data as currency then it will automatically be given two decimal places.However, you can choose to format currency with 0 dp because in some circumstances it would not be appropriate to display the pence. Think of an estate agent, they might sell a house for ? 295,000. It would look daft displayed as ? 295,000. 00. The currency data type also allows you to display the correct currency symbol such as ? or $. Boolean Boolean data holds one of two values, for example: * Yes/no * True/false * 0/1 A Boolean data type is used to answer questions where there are exactly two options, three options would mean it was no longer boolean data.Examples of questions where the responses would be stored as boolean data: * Has the heating been turned on? | Yes / No| * Are you employed? | Yes / No| Data / Time A date / time data type is used to store any data that is related to date or time. The tricky thing about date / time is that there are so many ways of showing it. And some countries have a different way of representing a date. For example * 9/4/94 in the USA means 4th Sept 94 * 9/4/94 in the UK means 9th April 94 By using a date /time data type, you can choose the format for how you want your data to be automatically displayed.For example: 14/05/08, 14 May 2008, 14th May 2008 etc. Another reason to use a date /time data type is that it can provide some basic validation on the data being entered. For example, you would not be able to enter the date 31/02/2008 – it would automatically be rejected or return an error message. Image Databases allow graphical images such as photographs to be stored as a data type. Images are binary files rather than text or numbers which is why a specific data type is required. Different file types such as . bmp, . jpg, . tiff can be storedQuality of information Things that affect the quality of information Accuracy If the data that you have collected is inaccurate then the information it will produce will inev itably also be inaccurate. Examples of how innacurate data occurs: Questionnaries and surveys * questions might be poorly worded so that users misunderstand them * there may not have been enough people interviewed for any conclusions to be reliable. For example, asking just two people is not likely to be enough Human mistakes * if people are collecting the data manually e. g. ecording answers to questionnaires, writing down instrument measurements, they might make a mistake. Calibration of instruments * if data is being collected automatically by sensors or other instruments then the results could be inaccurate if the instruments were not correctly calibrated at the start of the data collection period Examples of information which would be of little use if it was inaccurate: Weather forecasts Many people check the weather forecast each day so that they can get an idea of what to wear. People have to have faith that the forecast will be reasonably accurate in order to make decisions. Supermarket prices When you go to a shop you probably know how much money you have to spend. You chek the prices of things you are buying on the shelves and will have an idea of how much it will cost by the time you have reached the till. If the peson entering the price details into the system has accidentally overpriced a couple of items, then this could mean that you don’t have enough money to pay for shopping and have to put something back. Businesses Businesses have to keep accurate records of all the money coming in and all of the money being paid out.If the accountants make a mistake and dont accurately entera ll of the money received then it could look like the company has not made as much profit that year. Or they havent recorded all the bills so it seems that the company is making more money tan it really is Relevance In order for information to be useful it must be relevant to you. School You have a great deal of information to learn for each of your exams. Each tim e you go to lessons you probably take a lot of notes and perhaps are given handouts by your teachers to read.What about if your teachers decided to spend a few weeks teaching you about things that particularly interested them? What they had taught you might have been very interesting to both them and you but it isn't relevant to what you needed at the time. You would find that you had spent a few very precious weeks learning about things that you didn't need to know in order to pass your exam. Weather forecasts Whilst it might be interesting to find out what the weather is like in Florida or Melbourne today, it isn't really relevant to your everyday life.It won't help you decide whether you need to take an umbrella with you before you leave home in the UK. Doctor’s appointments You might be feeling unwell and want to make an appointment to see your doctor. You phone up the local surgery to find out when the doctor has a spare appointment time. It wouldn't be very useful or re levant to you if the receptionist told you how many appointment times were available to see the nurse. House prices Perhaps your parents might be thinking of moving house. The first thing they would do would be to speak to an estate agent to find out how much their house was worth.It wouldn't be useful or relevant if the estate agent were to tell them how a similar house in a different part of the country might be worth. Up to date information In order to be useful, information needs to be up to date. In many cases information changes over time and so old or out of date information can be misleading or five you the wrong picture of what is happening. Exams As part of your revision, you have a go at practicing lots of exam questions before the big day and you work your way through the practice papers and model answers that your teacher has given you.However, some of the papers are over five years old. How useful are the model answers for questions such as ‘which storage device would you recommend? ‘ and ‘what is the average size of a hard disk? ‘ It is well known that things move very quickly in the world of ICT and hardware and software changes rapidly. What was a top-notch computer just three years ago is now probably a very low-spec machine. So the model answers are likely to be out-of-date. Holidays Choosing a holiday can be great fun. And you would probably go to the travel agent to get the latest brochures. Why?Well, because if you used last year's brochures the holiday may not even be available any more. And certainly the prices would be different. So you need up-to-date information House prices Your parents are still thinking of selling their house. They need an idea of how much their house is worth right now. It would be no use to them being told by the estate agent how much their house was worth five years ago. Completeness In order for information to be useful it needs to be complete. If part of the information is missing then you will not be able to make use of it or make accurate decisions.Exams Remember those exam papers that you were doing for revision during your study leave? Your teacher wanted you to work your way through them and check your answers against the model answers. What if you were only given the second half of the model answer and the first half was missing? How useful would it be to you? Weather forecast You still want to plan the family picnic for tomorrow. However when you check the weather forecast you are only told what the weather in the morning will be like. There is nothing about the afternoon.You can't really make a decision just based upon what the morning weather is likely to be. Doctor’s appointment Imagine you are feeling ill and you need to make an appointment to see your doctor. How useful would it be if the receptionist just told you that you could have an appointment at quarter past two? Does she mean today, tomorrow or next week? The information in incomplete. Quality of presentation Information which is presented in a disorganised way or in a manner that is hard to understand will be less useful to you Business dataIf you were asked to present some information in a business meeting. It is often better to present it graphically. People find it very hard to spot patterns in a table of data, but the same information presented as a graph makes it very easy. Buying a house Your parents want to buy a new house. It is much easier to pick a house if a photograph was available. Your parents can see instantly if the house would appeal to them and whether they would be interested in finding out more. Once they have decided they like the look of the house they would then want more detailed written information.However, giving them the written information first with no idea of what the house looks like would make it difficult for them to get an idea as to whether they would like it. Too mucho or too litle detail For information to be useful you need t he right amout of detail. There is a risk of having too much detail which makes the information overwhelming and difficult to extract the bits that you want to know about. Or there might not be enough detail in which case you wont understand the full picture. Example: baking a cake Too much detail| Not enough detail|Ingredients Not only telling you that you need fluor, but telling you all of the different brands of fluor and how the choice of each one would affect the rising of your cake| Ingredients Telling you that you need fluor but not the quantity you will need to weigh ouy| MethodTelling you exactly how many times you need to beat the eggs and for exatly how many seconds you need to fold in the fluor| MethodTelling you to mix the ingredients together but not informing you of the correct order in which to combine them| CookingTelling you the exact amount of minutes that the cake should be baked for every type of oven that is currently for sale| CookingTelling you the temperatur a to cook the cake but not how long to leave it in the oven for| Coding of data When you are designing a database system to hold data, one of the first decisions that you will need to make is about how the data will be collected and stored. You already know the term GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out).If you collect data and enter it into the system without careful consideration at the planning stage then the output from your system will be of little use. One of the things that you can consider is to code some or all of your data in order to improve the efficiency of your system. What is coding of data? Any system will need to have data collected, entered and stored. One method of storing data is to assign codes to it. This usually means shortening the original data in an agreed manner. The agreement is between the users of the system. This coding scheme could be part of the training of how to use the system, and it could also be documented within the system for new users.If the coding is completely obvious then there is no such need for formal documentation. For example if a field called ‘Gender' has only two values ‘M' and ‘F'. It should be obvious from the field name that this refers to Male and Female. Example 1 Original data: Monday; Tuesday; Wednesday; Thursday; Friday Coded data: Mon; Tues; Wed; Thurs; Fri Example 2 Original data: Xtra Large; Large; Medium; Small Coded data: XL; L; M; S Example 3 The above codes are fairly easy for anyone to recognise and understand. Some codes however are more complicated. What do you think the following codes might represent? RG935LR CV183TP The above examples could be postcodes.They represent a street name, a particular part of the street and the town where the street is located. Example 4 How about: SK12BN TR14GN These might be a little bit more difficult because the code is made up from different representative parts. Let's have a closer look. The first part represents a piece of clothing, so ‘SK' represented ‘Skirt' and ‘TR' represented ‘Trousers' The middle part of the code was the dress size. The final part of the code represented a colour, so ‘BN' represented ‘Brown' and ‘GN' represented ‘Green'. You should be able to see from that information that the first code is a size 12 brown skirt. What piece of clothing would the second code represent? Why might we want to code data?Much of the data that we collected and enter into our systems has some degree of repetition. Speeding up data entry Let's take the example of collecting data about a person's gender. People can be either ‘Male' or ‘Female'. Whilst these two options are easily understood by all, imagine having to enter the word ‘Male' and ‘Female' into a system many hundreds of times instead. It is a waste of time and effort because no extra information is contained in the full words compared to a single letter. Increase accuracy of data entry The other issue is that no matter how accurate a person is at data entry, at some stage they are likely to make a mistake and might spell ‘Male' as ‘Mail' or ‘Female' as ‘Femal'.This type of mistake will make any results from your database queries unreliable. Instead of entering ‘Male' or ‘Female' you could code the data and instead enter it as ‘M' or ‘F'. Simply having to enter one letter instead of a possible six will speed up data entry. It will also cut down on the risk of mistakes being made with spelling. Use of validation In our example, the words ‘Male' or ‘Female' have been coded so that they become ‘M' or ‘F'. When data has been coded it makes it easier to use validation to check if the data entered is sensible. With the example above, the person entering the data could still make a mistake and enter ‘S' instead of ‘M' or ‘F'.But if you set up validation so that the field will only accept the l etters ‘M' or ‘F' and absolutely nothing else then that should further cut down on possible mistakes. Note that validation can only check if the data is sensible and within reasonable limits, it cannot check whether the data is accurate. Somebody could still enter ‘F' instead of ‘M'. Less storage space required Every letter that you store in your database system will take at least one byte of storage. If you store ‘Female' as ‘F' then you will save five bytes of storage space. If the system belongs to a large organisation, there might be many thousands or millions of records stored – simply by coding one field, a huge amount of hard disk storage can be saved. Faster searching for dataIt stands to reason that the smaller the size of your database, the faster it will be to search and produce results. Thus by coding data and keeping the size of the system to a minimum the more time you can save in the long run when running queries. Coding exam ples In our everyday lives we come across many examples of how coding is used to represent data. Here are just a few more ideas: Country names The name of a country can be represented by two letters. For example: Great Britain – GB France – FR Canada – CA Problems caused by coding data Whilst coding data can bring many benefits it can also lead to some problems. Coarsening of data This means that during the coding process some of the subtle details in the data are lost. Look at the image below:

Examine The Ambiguity Of The Play S Conclusion Essay

When the audience does not receive a rounded story, and causality is being blurred the effect of a play can be unsettling, suggesting the presence of an unsolved situation. Although in the case of Death And The Maiden ambiguity is used in an unusual, opposite way where the created effect is best described by calmness and acquiescence. Does Paulina kill Roberto, or does she let him stay alive? Is Roberto really there in the theatre or is he just a fantasy? Leaving these questions open is very provocative. For the first sight the reader might feel intimidated, that the  foundations for any interpretation are removed, there are so few facts to start from. Because as he might discovered from the context before there is a symbolism, that one can associate characters with the people of post Pinochet Chile, or people of any country in a state of healing. But then how does this symbolism work? It does not say too much about the ways of reconciliation, and what is more that even if it does so it feels like an analytical dead end. Because it says that no matter in what ways you try to set yourself free of trauma, by revenge or by forgiveness the outcome will be the same, Roberto or his phantom  will always be there. This provocative nature of ambiguity forces the reader to look for new explanations. And where is the solution to be found if not in the book’s yet least understood part, in its title. What is death and the maiden for the reader? It can be the Schubert piece, or a motif that manifests itself in arts and literature from the medieval ages. But most importantly it is the motif for the universal presence of death. And suddenly all makes sense, Dorfman does not intend to intimidate the reader azzal, hogy azt mondja nincs megoldas a tramumaval valo megkuzdesre.

Knowledge Management Importance In Organisations Commerce Essay

In today competitory environment, the cognition direction is significantly become more importance in many administrations. Harmonizing to Chaffey ( 2007, p.486 ) define that cognition direction is the direction of activities and procedures for leveraging cognition to heighten fight through better usage and creative activity of single and corporate cognition resources. Knowledge can be divided into two different types which is expressed cognition and tacit cognition. Therefore, cognition is an of import resource in nowadays modern administration. Consequently, the beginning of cognition is uniqueness and hard imitate by the rivals.Industry analysisIn this age of globalization, cognition acquisition has become the critical agencies for acquisition competitory advantageIn this age of globalization cognitionacquisition has become the critical agencies for deriving competitory advantage, and assuch acquisition has become a important component of cognition acquisition, application andcreative activity ( Longworth and Davies, 1996 ) . The widespread proliferation of cyberspaceengineerings and applications provides unbelievable chances for the bringing ofinstruction and preparation, and with quickly increasing internet use e-learning has nowgo a portable and flexible new method for scholars to derive indispensable cognition ( ching, Lee, factors influence the acceptance of e-learning system )The forces of engineering, globalization and emerging cognitio n economic system are making a revolution that is coercing administrations to seek for new ways like implement cognition direction at the administration in order to vie with the rival. 2 ) Current usage of cognition direction in the Higher instruction industry Nowadays, higher instruction is face challenges in the competitory environment. Therefore, utilizing cognition direction techniques and engineerings in the higher instruction is critical because higher instruction is in the corporate sector. If the higher instruction can implement knowledge direction efficaciously, it can take to better decision-making capablenesss, better faculty members and administrative services, reduced cost and others. ( Kidwell, Linde and Johnson, 2000, p.31 ) Consequently, cognition direction is one of the good direction tools in today ‘s cognition based society.2.1 ) Knowledge direction in Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics ( MESI )Harmonizing to Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin ( 2008, p.16 ) province that Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics and Informatics ( MESI ) is one of the taking research and educational Centres in the field of economic sciences, mathematics, statistic, IT and direction wholly over the Russia and Commonwealth Independent State ( CIS ) states. Furthermore, MESI is founded in 1932 and is an advanced educational and scientific composite, with 50 subdivision constitutions, 117 representatives ‘ offices and more than 200 regional spouses in Russia, CIS and other states. In add-on, MESI besides acknowledged as a leader in the development and execution of the latest preparation methods and advanced engineerings of E-learning. Presents, the higher instruction is recognized to be in the cognition concern and bit by bit more open to market place force per unit areas in a similar manner to other concern all over the universe. ( Rowley, 2000, p.325 ) Thus, many instruction administrations is late begun to recognize the importance of those alterations and besides get down to implement the cognition direction to the administration. For case, based on the Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin ( 2008, p.16 ) province that MESI is one of the instruction administration are have several cognition direction initiatives that the University can put to death like through making cognition direction research centres ; making cognition direction subjects, and implement it in a university course of study ; opening cognition direction larning plans on each degree like certification, unmarried man, maestro and PhD degrees ; implementing cognition direction Initiatives in the University ‘s procedures and forming external c onsultancy services for authorities and private administrations. Consequently, all of these enterprises has undertaken by the MESI. Furthermore, â€Å" MESI ‘s aims are to better coaction with authorities and concern ; want to increase quality, effectivity, efficiency and inventions. In add-on, MESI ‘s ends are want to do the University knowledge resources relevant, transparent, systematic, accessible and useable. Finally, the MESI is wanted to accomplish powerful competitory advantages † . ( Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin, 2008, p.16 )2.1.1 ) Quality direction system ( QMS )Harmonizing to CERCO Working Group on Quality ( 2000, p.7 ) define that Quality Management System ( QMS ) as a managing construction, duties, procedures, processs, and direction resources to implement the rules and action lines needed in order to accomplish the quality aims of an administration. Therefore, Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin ( 2008, p.17 ) province that MESI besides hav e implemented the QMS which is certified in conformity with the ISO 9001:2000. The execution of QMS constructs in this University is affecting leading, procedure, systematic attack, client orientation and others. Therefore, all of this QMS constructs are lays the footing for planned cognition direction enterprises to the University. In add-on, this QMS constructs implement by the University is really a system for demands ‘ designation and fulfillment, addresses the demands of internal and external stakeholders, employers, internal interested parties like module and employees and others. Furthermore, QMS besides support the international demand for research and quality instruction. Consequently, from the QMS construct, it seen the cognition is an of import plus for the MESI to leverage throughout the whole university system ( Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin, 2008, p.17 ) Furthermore, there is holding other cognition direction reenforcing elements embedded in go outing QMS attacks which is the MESI ‘s system of Strategic and Operational Management Planning are back uping the cognition plans all over the strategic program, quality policy and ends. ( Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin,2008, p.17 ) This strategic planning of University can be view in appendix 1. Therefore, through use this strategic planning, the MESI conducts it every six months, both an internal and external rating of its scheme, visions and ends, in conformity with an internal Rules of Procedure. Beside this, it is a self-assessment of each chief procedure and end product. Furthermore, this strategic planning besides is a system for monitoring, reexamining and analysis of demands, sentiments and attitudes of employers and end-user like pupil, alumnus pupil and others. ( Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin, 2008, p.17 ) Consequently, the developed service of selling and monito ring is used for this intent. Thus, based on Davidson and Voss ( 2002, p.149 ) province that cognition is understood to be a strategic resource and system are in topographic point to attest that the administration can calculate its hereafter cognition demands. As a consequence, strategic planning is an of import tool for the University and it can supply benefit to the MESI which have betterment the countries of technological substructure, pupil services, plan bringing, institutional and executive committedness, fiscal wellness, and others.2.1.2 ) the cardinal Realms of Knowledge ManagementHarmonizing to Petrides and Nodine ( 2003, p. 10 ) describe that three core organizational resources in the cognition direction is involve procedures, people and engineerings. Hence, this three constituent can take the administration to utilize and portion information more efficaciously.2.1.2.1 ) Procedure, People, TechnologyHowever, harmonizing to Tikhomirova, Gritsenko and Pechenkin ( 2008, p.18 ) province that MESI operates the university ‘s concern activities and maps by using a procedure theoretical account. This procedure theoretical account can see in appendix 2. Through the diagram from appendix 2, the MESI ‘s procedure theoretical account has an proprietor and chiseled ends. In add-on, every basic procedure are described and translated in the ordinance paperss of MESI. Therefore, this is a cognition sharing in the University because each of the module and employee besides can entree the information through the university corporate portal. Therefore, for each procedure, this will affect the people like staff, clients, spouses and rivals. Furthermore, MESI besides continually undertake reengineering as a effect of feedback and analysis. Therefore, this procedure theoretical account can steer the MESI to implement the cognition direction more effectual. Beside this, from the MESI ‘s procedure theoretical account, it can supply the appropriate cognition direction tools and engineerings to the system. So, this is involve the engineering in the university when implement the cognition direction. Consequently, this is the chief thought of a systematic attack to knowledge direction execution is incorporating the cognition direction rhythm to each concern procedure. Last, the cognition momAppendixsAppendix 1: Strategic Planning of UniversityBeginnings: appendix 1 adapted from Natatya Tikhomirova, Anatoly Gritsenko and Alexander Pechenkin ( 2008, p.18 )Appendix 2: MESI procedure theoretical accountBeginnings: appendix 2 adapted from Natatya Tikhomirova, Anatoly Gritsenko and Alexander Pechenkin ( 2008, p.19 )

Modern Art And Digitalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Modern Art And Digitalization - Essay Example However, 21st century is the era of digitalization where technology is transforming everything from culture to people into digital images. The creation of artwork was an elite task; however, the digital software now allows even non-professionals to create their artwork within few clicks that has been an enormous social effect of digitalization of art in the society.However, 21st century is the era of digitalization where technology is transforming everything from culture to people into digital images. The creation of artwork was an elite task; however, the digital software now allows even non-professionals to create their artwork within few clicks that has been an enormous social effect of digitalization of art in the society. Some of the evident forms of digitalization are Windows Movie Maker, Windows Media Player, Facebook, YouTube, and a huge number of technologies that encourage users to create their own artworks, and thus, it has now become a major source of expression for peopl e around the globe. It has now become very imperative for experts to investigate and analyze different factors related to digitalization that is affecting art in a significant manner socially, as well as culturally. In this regard, this paper will attempt to identify the role of technology in digitalizing the field of art and its effects on the creators, users, and the audience globally.It is anticipation that findings and discussions of this paper will provide a comprehensive understanding of the people regarding the contribution, as well as the impact of digital technologies in our lives, and the role that it can play in the future. In particular, the paper will discuss the background of the art and its movements during different periods, and the social impact of art movements. Lastly, the paper will scrutinize the role of art in the contemporary age of technology and its impact on our lives.

SIM 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

SIM 6 - Essay Example The scripture Deuteronomy 6:1-9 warns the Israelites against worshipping any other god but Yahweh. The big idea in this passage is that the Israelites are a chosen people down their generations. It is apparent from the passage that they must live according to God’s will. The LORD God promises to allow them live in the Promised Land for a long time if they not only listen to His commandments, but also obey them at the same time. In short, God is revealing that His promises are conditional. Moses says, â€Å"Listen to them, people of Israel, and obey them! Then all will go well with you, and you will become a mighty nation, and live in that fertile land, just as the LORD, the God of our ancestors has promised (Deuteronomy 6:3).† This passage fits the theme of the book in the sense that it continues to give laws guiding man’s relationship with God. After being chosen, taken into captivity in Egypt and finally emancipated, the LORD God makes the terms of His covenant with Abraham1 specific to the Israelites. The laws given demonstrate that they have been called to righteousness2 and that they have to be righteous in the first place. They must also have faith in God alone, trust in him and keep his commandments down the generations so that His promises may be fulfilled in their lives. The historical and cultural background of the passage traces back to the call of Abraham when he was in Ur. Upon demonstrating faith in God, he had been promised that he would be made a great nation3. When Abraham’s descendants were now numerous and serving in Egypt as slaves, God saved Moses as the vessel through which he would later free the Israelites from bondage. Moses rises as a great prophet who liberated the Israelites from Egypt in plan with God’s plan. Through him, God gives His people the Law to guide their relationships as they await the Messiah

Summary of a scientific article Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary of a scientific article - Assignment Example Through different sampling and harvesting techniques, levels of nitrogen and phosphorus were analyzed through soil samples and harvesting flora. The scientists were looking at how the different interactions of shrubs played a role in the levels of nutrients in the soil. They then had samples planted in respective areas in order to determine how different conditions might play a role in the nutrient levels of the soil which effect future growth. These questions were addressed through biochemical analysis. Then statistical data was run in the form of repeated measures ANOVA in order to determine statistical significance of the raw data. They were able to see that there was significance in portions of the data when the biochemical assays were analyzed. There was a correlation between certain shrubs and the amount of nutrients that are found in the specific sample sizes. What this is able to show is that in territorial reclamation of a plant species after devastation, such as a fire, can be important when trying to rebuild an ecosystem. It also serves as a model for both exotic and domestic species.

Introducing a line of bottled water Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Introducing a line of bottled water - Essay Example In order to differentiate within the market, the supplements would be developed so that the water taste was not changed, and through marketing to the segment of the population that is starting to experience minor ailments and issues that can be directly addressed through supplements. The segment would be the aging population that is 40 and over. Marketing will also have to be directed to a broader demographic through onsite marketing that is less specific to age. As the bottled water market has increased steadily since 1997, the potential for success is high. Introduction Bottled water has become a staple in Western society, a trend that stems from a variety of areas of concern. One of the reasons that bottled water has become a prominent resource for hydration is that the fitness industry has determined that a significant amount of water, usually defined by about 2 litres, per day is necessary for good health (World Health Organisation 2004: 486). Another reason that bottled water h as become more marketable in the last few decades is that public water, as in tap water, has come under attack for the purity and safety that it contains. As a result, a natural marriage between the health industry and bottled water has emerged in which diversification into the bottled water market makes sense for corporations that have health related products already in their product line. One company that has yet to develop bottled water is GlaxoSmithKline. Through the exploration of their current line of products and brands, along with an exploration of the overall market, the addition of a line of water to the GlaxoSmithKline product line would enhance the current product line as well as open up a new market. The brand name of the proposed new line of water will be called PURE with a supplemental line of text used to define which type of water is being offered. The line of bottled water would not simply be the one line of basic water, but in order to appeal to the chosen demogra phic, a line of water with supplements within them would increase the potential success of the line. Taking the example of waters such as Dasani by the Coke product line and Aquafina by the Pepsi product line, creating flavoured waters or water with minerals and supplements has shown to have success. The twist on this line of water is that all of the water will taste like water, but will have supplements that target the differing needs of those who are aging. GlaxoSmithKline Company Overview Formed in 2001 through a merger between GlaxoWelcome and SmithKline Beecham, the company holds its headquarters in Great Britain with most of its business being conducted in the United States. As a pharmaceutical leader, the company is a leader in respiratory, central nervous system research, diabetes and vaccines, with 2003 seeing pre-tax sales of more than 21.4 billion. Profits were approximately 6.3 billion with an investment

Gambling Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Gambling - Research Paper Example But the surrounding population, which is not actively involved in gambling also, suffers from its impact, positive as well as negative. The business of gambling has been a major contender of policy makers’ dialogue since long. But unfortunately, the lack of research, especially eminent research has been hindering any positive conclusions. Furthermore, contentious and biased suggestions and studies made in this field are disabling people to determine the bang of gambling in true essence. INTRODUCTION Many countries, especially the ones suffering from economic adversity consider that gambling can be a universal remedy and magic potion to their economic and social problems. Countries having high rate of unemployment deem gambling business as a glorious opportunity of their economic revival. This includes gambling enterprises, lottery tickets and especially destination resorts. In addition, federal, local and state governments receive large amounts of money out of this business in terms taxes and receipt of lottery tickets. However, there are huge costs associated in this business along with these benefits. There exist two opponent schools of thought regarding the gambling business. The one in favor of this field regard it as a source of recreation and quick income to the people. They divide gambling in two distinct categories: Leisure gambling and Lottery gaming. According to this group, people do leisure gambling in order to add relief and entertainment to their hectic lives. This is like other recreational activities such as listening to music, playing chess or golf, etc. Whereas, Lottery gaming is done with a longing of winning large prizes. The opponent group believes that gambling or lotteries, in any way, are based on miscalculations and elusive anticipations. According to this group, the lottery player or gambler always is a victim of these illusions and misconstructions. Famous economists say that customers/ people are the common target of this busi ness. So, the effect of gambling on economy depends upon its actual impact on people individually and communities in general. Unquestionably, such sectors of business, like money-making casinos, hotels and destination resorts offer jobs with good remunerations; this include smart salary and fringe benefits such as health care, advance education and work related trainings. Moreover, the class entertainment is itself a qualitative economic and social benefit to people. These benefits monetarily support the hard beaten families and individuals but unfortunately, these benefits do not get there alone but along with a host of incontrovertible and momentous costs. Increasing number of people suffering from crisis of pathological gambling, time and again results in impoverishment, felony, suicide, separation, violence or maltreatment. Various recent studies and researches have tried to calculate these costs to society in general and individuals in particular, but no dollar amount can actua lly characterize what a mislaid or stray parent, life partner or kid means to the left over family. Furthermore, most of these costs are indirect and quantifying the costs of emotional impairs and its long lasting impact on families and their children is not possible. In many ways, the substantial impacts from problem gambling can be considered as comparable to the financial impacts of alcohol

Un Chien Andalou by Salvador Dali and Luis Bunuel Essay

Un Chien Andalou by Salvador Dali and Luis Bunuel - Essay Example The purpose of paper "Un Chien Andalou by Salvador Dali and Luis Bunuel" is to investigate how the corresponding philosophical position of postmodernism influences the aesthetic values of the work of art, the film Un Chien Andalou. Surrealism, which is a part of the philosophy of postmodernism is defined as psychic automatism in its pure state, by which one expresses verbally by means of the written word, or in another manner, the actual functioning of thought. Surrealism is dictated by the thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and devoid of aesthetic or moral concern. Surrealism is based on the belief in the superior reality â€Å"of certain forms of previously neglected associations, in the omnipotence of dream, in the disinterested play of thought†. It ruins completely all other psychic mechanisms and substitutes itself for them, while solving all the main problems of life. The postmodern philosophy challenges any clear and concise process of identific ation and definition as a part of rationality. Postmodernism rejects common sense and accessibility, scientific reason, philosophical logic, clarity or precision. On the other hand, postmodernism seeks to grasp those elements that escape these processes of definition, and â€Å"celebrates what resists or disrupts them†. A plurality of definitions has now come to describe postmodernism’s multifaceted nature. Examples of postmodern art relate to fracturing, fragmenting, indeterminacy and plurality. Postmodernism is the style of our age.

Buss's Strategic Conflict Model Between Two Sexes Essay

Buss's Strategic Conflict Model Between Two Sexes - Essay Example These studies, according to Buss, provide modest support for the strategic conflict model and implicate the negative emotions of anger and upset as proximate mechanisms that alert men and women to strategic interference. Moreover, the diversity of upset elicitors discovered here (being condescending, possessive, neglecting, abusive, inconsiderate, moody, and self-centered), point to the limitations of this evolutionary model and the need to develop more comprehensive models of conflict between the sexes. At a closer look, the following observations and comments have been drawn: First, the highly selective samples of American college students and their generalizability may be limited. There is an uneven distribution of subjects, with 51 men and 56 women. Second, the reliance on self-report measures, although that has been the methodology of choice in most research examining sexual desires may not yield and objective result. Self-rating method can be bias in the sense that the subjects feelings and prejudice may interfere with the results. Moreover, the subjects have so many differences. They come from different backgrounds and have differing knowledge and perceptions of the same and opposite sexes of participants. They also differ in dating history and marital status. The ones with longer dating history may have different perceptions and experiences with those of short-term dating. The married ones, divorced, widowed and singles have definitely different experiences and maturity. In addition, this is a problematic development of upset instrument because the instrument is based on responses from undergraduates only. There is a disparity in the level of maturity compared to the lower and higher levels of actual, real-life individuals and experiences, as well as psychological make-up. Furthermore, the participants of this research are either single and in a relationship. This could lead to the responses based on the participant's imaginative capabilities. This could further cause more differences. Another bias is the partial explanation for males only, such as: Men's upset and anger about women's withholding of sex. Women are not necessarily upset and angered by the hypothesized feature of male reproductive strategy involving sexual aggressiveness. According to attachment fertility theory (Miller and Fishkin, 1997) that might argue that unattached participants were in the phase of "promiscuously" seeking potential mates in an attempt to enhance the likelihood of a good mate choice. The unattached female here can take male's aggression and may be happy with it because of the initial motivation of seeking a potential mate. Female, in this case are unfairly described. In addition, differences of features of the opposite sex's reproductive strategy or different reproductive strategy may not interfere with one's adopted reproductive strategy and thus cause conflict. Moreover, the research claims that negative emotions provide signal and reduce

Family Centered Care in Acute Care Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Family Centered Care in Acute Care - Assignment Example The following paper identifies, summarizes, and critiques three recent research articles concerning family centered care in acute care. I chose this article because it is a qualitative research focused on the needs of the relatives of patients during acute care. The researchers chose a setting that has been neglected for several years in a developing country. The setting is suitable for this research project as it helps to define family centered care in the presence and absence of patient education. Bastani et al researched ways to set up family-oriented health guidelines for patients in a neurosurgery ward and assess its effect on the fulfilment of patients and their relatives. The study took on the design of a collaborative participatory experiment that involved a set of medical nurses and an educational researcher. Bastani et al carried out the research in a neurosurgery ward within a campus hospital with 26 beds (Bastani et al., 2013). Bastani et al use of parallel combined techniques to collect and review information was appropriate. This method allowed the study to discover three key barriers to setting up family centered health guidelines: intra-professional, inter-professional, and institutional. As a result, the full gratification of patients and their relatives showed the effectiveness of the nurses in realizing health informational goals. I chose this article was present a sharp comparison of individual experiences that serve as a paramount trigger the fundamental concept of my project. The findings and method used in this article is suitable for examining the effect of encouraging family centered care inside an acute adult clinical environment. Ewart et al underline the service enhancement project started in a single acute cardiac unit inside a regional hospital trust in the East of England. Here, Ewart et al examined the effect of improving family centered care inside an acute adult environment. The study found over nine months

Afghanistan and Iraq invasions by U.S. Essay Example for Free

Afghanistan and Iraq invasions by U.S. Essay In recent years, the United States of America president, George W. Bush has vowed to continue with his invasions in both Iraq and Afghanistan simultaneously. His administration has declined against United Nations objections to war on these two nations early this year. The United Nations has suggested that the United States has erred in underestimating the obligation of pacifying the two nations but instead rushed to fulfill the Bush Doctrine that was floundering (Roberts, 2003, pp. 37). Bush has therefore shown the unwillingness to swallow his pride and has persistently compromised the international community. Bush has demonstrated the same rigidity in attacking what he described as Osama Taliban allies in Afghanistan. This has led to slashing of Afghanistan prisoners openly and thus denying them the right accorded to combatants during war time. The war on these two nations has been considered unfair since US has produced an evidence that Iraq had the capability of producing biological and nuclear weapons in the near future but not now. It has also abandoned the claims that Iraq had introduced a nuclear program. This means the nations were not legitimate enemies (Roberts, 2003, pp. 27). Interesting enough, these attacks have been characterized by racial discrimination that seems to be deepening day in day out. Arabs and Muslims have been treated as the victims of the bigotry in Afghanistan. The reports that have been released by bodies that protect human rights indicate clearly that acts of discrimination against Arabs and Muslims have increased by a margin of 1700% since Bush announced the war on both of these countries (Cordesman, 1999, pp. 40). These two tribes have been discriminated in the lines of cultural discrimination that is concerned with hatred against crimes, discrimination in employment and perpetration from those who get misinformed about them through airwaves, street corners and schools of the United States of America. The other areas in which discrimination has been pronounced include the policies that have been enacted by America relating to the immigration control procedures and ethnic profiling. These policies have damaged and frustrated the lives of many Muslim and Arab families that were innocent (Cordesman, 1999, pp. 30). It is mostly viewed all over the world that America’s occupation of these two Muslim nations is a move to Americanize the zones culturally, politically and economically. This is the reason why all international organizations are crying foul upon America troops to leave these two nations alone. This call has however received a great resistant and harsh response from America. The occupation of these nations has led to freezing of charity assets and promoted anti Islam media campaign that has angered many Muslims. This behavior has made Muslims feel that they are treated as potential terrorists not as potential individuals. According to Bush, a good Muslim allows occupation of his land, freezing of financial assets, killing of his people and destruction of social fabric. These are not acts to curb violence and terrorism but driving the country to political and economic sabotage (Dale, 2004, pp. 34). According to Article 51, chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the concept of the Right of Self Defense has been violated by Bush. This is because it states that a country should not be disrupted by force so long as it is willing and able to provide defense for itself. Occupation of these two countries has been treated as mayhem by their nationals because they feel that they should be left alone because they have the ability to protect their citizens and their assets.This is supported by the continuous attacks of US troops by their Muslim counterparts (Dale, 2004, pp. 35). Reference: Roberts Jeffery, 2003. The Origins of Conflicts in Afghanistan. Mahwah, NJ, Praeger Publishers, pp. 27, 37. Cordesman Antony, 1999. Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction. Mahwah NJ, Praeger Publishers, pp. 30, 40. Dale Stephen, 2004. The Garden of the Eight Paradises: America and Afghanistan. Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 34, 45.

Summary and Analysis of the Compton Effect

Summary and Analysis of the Compton Effect En = nhf (1) where En is the energy, n is a non-negative integer, h is Plancks constant, and f is the frequency of the photon.2 In 1905, Albert Einstein extended Plancks inference to include not only black body radiation but all electromagnetic waves! Therefore, Einstein hypothesized that light is quantized with energy proportional to its frequency.3 The obvious principle to be deduced from these discoveries is that light possessed attributes of waves and particles! In 1922, Arthur Holly Compton solidified Plancks assumption and therefore firmly established a new era of physics. Compton theorized and then experimentally demonstrated that electromagnetic waves had the properties of particles. Classically, x-rays would shake the electrons of a target material at the same frequency of the x-ray. Hence, the wavelength of radiation from the oscillating electrons would be identical to the wavelength of the incoming xrays. 1 However, it was observed that x-rays were more easily absorbed by materials than waves of longer wavelength. In other words, the scattered  x-rays were of longer wavelength.4 This was contrary to the predictions of classical physics. Compton realized though, that if the interaction was modeled as a collision between two particles (electron and photon), the scattered x-rays would-be of longer wave length (compared to the incident-rays) because the recoiling electron would acquire some of the energy and momentum of the  incoming x-ray.4 Since wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, the frequency of the scattered x-rays was less. From eq. (1), it is seen  that the energy would also be decreased. When Compton carried out this experiment in 1922 using molybdenum as his target, he verified his theory and provided even more evidence that light also possessed a mass less particle nature Detailed Description of Compton Effect   the elastic scattering of electromagnetic radiation by free electrons, accompanied by an increase in wavelength; it is observed during scattering of radiation of short wavelength-X rays and gamma rays. The corpuscular properties of radiation were fully revealed for the first time in the Compton Effect. The Compton effect was discovered in 1922 by the American physicist A. Compton, who observed that X rays scattered in paraffin have a longer wavelength than the incident rays. Such a shift in wavelength could not be explained by classical theory. In fact, according to classical electrodynamics, under the influence of the periodic electric field of an electromagnetic (light) wave, an electron should oscillate with a frequency equal to that of the wave and consequently should radiate secondary (scattered) waves of the same frequency. Thus, in classical scattering (the theory of which was provided by the British physicist J. J. Thomson and is therefore called Thomson scattering) the wavelength of the light does not change. An elementary theory of the Compton effect based on quantum concepts was given by Compton and independently by P. Debye. According to quantum theory a light wave is a stream of light quanta, or photons. Each photon has a definite energy Ø ¹ =hv=hc/ÃŽÂ »and a definite momentum pÃŽÂ ³= (h/ÃŽÂ »)n, where ÃŽÂ » is the wavelength of the incident light (vis its frequency),cis the speed of light,his Plancks constant, and n is the unit vector in the direction of propagation of the wave (the subscript ÃŽÂ ³ denotes a photon). In quantum theory the Compton Effect appears as an elastic collision between two particles, the incident photon and the stationary electron. In every such collision event the laws of conservation of energy and momentum are obeyed. A photon that has collided with an electron transfers part of its energy and momentum to the electron and changes its direction of motion (it is scattered); the decrease in the photons energy signifies an increase in the wav elength of the scattered light. The electron, which previously had been stationary, receives energy and momentum from the photon and is set in motion (it experiences recoil). The direction of motion of the particles after the collision, as well as their energy, is determined by the laws of conservation of energy and momentum (Figure 1). Elastic collision of a photon and an electron in the Compton effect. Before the collision the electron was stationary:pÃŽÂ ³and pÃŽÂ ³are the momentum of the incident and scattered photons, pe=mvis the momentum of the recoil electron (vis its velocity),(is the photons scattering angle, and à ¸ is the angle of escape of the recoil electron relative to the direction of the incident photon. Simultaneous solution of the equations expressing the equality of the summed energies and momentums of the particles before and after the collision (assuming that the electron is stationary before the collision) gives Comptons formula for the shift in the wavelength of the light: =ÃŽÂ » à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »=ÃŽÂ »0(1 Ë- cos ÃŽÂ ¸) Here ÃŽÂ » is the wavelength of the scattered light, ÃŽÂ ¸ is the photons scattering angle, and ÃŽÂ »0=h/mc= 2.426 ÃÆ'- 10Ë-10cm = 0.024 angstrom (Ã…) is the Compton wavelength of the electron (mis the mass of the electron). It follows from Comptons formula that the shift in the wavelength does not depend on the wavelength ÃŽÂ » of the incident light itself. It is solely determined by the scattering angle ÃŽÂ ¸ of the photon and is maximal when ÃŽÂ ¸ = 180 °, that is, when scattering is straight back: max= 2ÃŽÂ »o. Expressions for the energy Ø ¹eof the recoil, or Compton, electron as a function of the angle à ¸ of its escape may be obtained from the same equations. The dependence of the energy Ø ¹ ÃŽÂ ³ of the scattered photon on the scattering angle ÃŽÂ ¸, as well as the dependence of Ø ¹eon à ¸, which is related to it, is shown in Figure 2. From the figure it is apparent that the recoil electrons always have a velocity component in the direction of motion of the incident photon (that is, à ¸ does not exceed 90 °). Experiment has confirmed all the above theoretical predictions. The correctness of the corpuscular concepts of the mechanism of the Compton effect-and thus the correctness of the basic assumptions of quantum theory-has been experimentally proved. In actual experiments on the scattering of photons by matter, the electrons are not free but are bound to atoms. If the energy of the photons is high in comparison with the binding energy of the electrons in the atom (X-ray and gamma-ray photons), then the electrons experience a recoil strong enough to expel them from the atom. In this case the photon scattering proceeds as if with free electrons. However, if the energy of the photon is not sufficient to tear the electron from the atom, then the photon exchanges energy and momentum with the entire atom. Since the mass of the atom is very great compared to the photons equivalent mass (which, according to the theory of relativity, equals  £y/c2), the recoil is virtually nonexistent; therefore, the photon Dependence of the energyØ ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »of the scattered photon on the scattering angleÃŽÂ ¸(for convenience, only the upper half of the symmetrical curve is depicted) and the dependence of the energy Ø ¹eof the recoil electron on the angle of escape 0 (lower half of the curve). Quantities related to the same collision event are labeled with identical numbers. The vectors drawn from point 0, at which the collision between the proton with energy Ø ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ³ and the stationary electron occurred, to corresponding points on the curves depict the state of the particle after scattering: the magnitudes of the vectors give the energy of the particles, and the angles formed by the vectors with the direction of the incident photon define the scattering angle à ¸ and the angle 0 of the recoil electrons path. (The graph was plotted for the case of scattering of hard X rays with wavelengthhc/Ø ¹ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ³= ÃŽÂ ³o= 0.024 Ã….)  is scattered without a change in its energy (t hat is, without a change in its wavelength, or coherently). In heavy atoms only the peripheral electrons are weakly bound (in contrast to the electrons filling the inner shells of the atom), and therefore the spectrum of the scattered radiation has both a shifted (Compton) line, from scattering by the peripheral electrons, and an un-shifted (coherent) line, from scattering by the entire atom. With increasing atomic number (nuclear charge) the electron binding energy increases, the relative intensity of the Compton line decreases, and that of the coherent line increases. The motion of the electrons in atoms leads to a broadening of the Compton lines in the scattered radiation. This occurs because the wavelength of the incident light appears to be slightly changed for moving electrons; in addition, the amount of change depends on the magnitude and direction of the electrons velocity (the Doppler effect). Careful measurements of the intensity distribution in a Compton line, which reflects the velocity distribution of the electrons in the material, has confirmed the correctness of quantum theory, according to which electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. The simplified theory of the Compton Effect examined here does not permit the calculation of all characteristics of Compton scattering, particularly the intensity of photon scattering at various angles. A complete theory of the Compton Effect is provided by quantum electrodynamics. The intensity of Compton scattering depends on both the scattering angle and the wavelength of the incident radiation. Asymmetry is observed in the angular distribution of the scattered photons: more photons are scattered forward, and the asymmetry increases with increasing energy of the incident photons. The total intensity of Compton scattering decreases with an increase in the energy of the primary photons (Figure 3); this indicates that the probability of the Compton scattering of a photon passing through matter diminishes with decreasing energy. Such a dependence of intensity on  £y determines the place of Compton scattering among the other effects of interaction between matter and radiation that ar e responsible for loss of energy by photons in their passage through matter. For example, in lead the Compton effect makes the main contribution to the energy loss of photons at energies of the order of 1-10 mega electron volts, or MeV (in a lighter element, aluminum, this range is 0.1-30.0 MeV); below this region it is surpassed by the photoelectric effect, and above it by pair production. Compton scattering is used extensively in studying the gamma radiation of nuclei; it is also the basis of the principle of operation of some gamma spectrometers. The Compton effect is possible not only for electrons but also for other charged particles, such as protons; however, because of the protons large mass its recoil is noticeable only during the scattering of photons with very high energy. The double Compton effect consists of the formation of two scattered photons in place of a single incident photon during scattering by a free electron. The existence of this process follows from quantum electrodynamics; it was first observed in 1952. Its probability is approximately a hundred times less than that of the ordinary Compton effect. Graph showing the dependence of the total Compton scattering intensity Inverse Compton effect. If the electrons on which electromagnetic radiation is scattered are relativistic (that is, if they are moving with speeds close to the speed of light), then in an elastic collision the wavelength of the radiation will decrease: the energy and momentum of the photons will increase at the expense of the energy and momentum of the electrons. This phenomenon is called the inverse Compton effect and is often used to explain the radiation mechanism of cosmic X-ray sources, the production of the X-ray component of the background galactic radiation, and the transformation of plasma waves into high-frequency electromagnetic waves. Description of the phenomenon By the early 20th century, research into the interaction ofX-rayswith matter was well underway. It was known that when a beam of X-rays is directed at an atom, an electron is ejected and is scattered through an angleÃŽÂ ¸.Classical electromagnetismpredicts that the wavelength of scattered rays should be equal to the initial wavelength;-9-2[3]however, multiple experiments found that the wavelength of the scattered rays was greater than the initial wavelength. In 1923, Compton published a paper in thePhysical Reviewexplaining the phenomenon. Using the notion ofquantized radiationand the dynamics ofspecial relativity, Compton derived the relationship between the shift in wavelength and the scattering angle: Where ÃŽÂ »is the initial wavelength, ÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²is the wavelength after scattering, his thePlanck constant, meis the mass of the electron, cis thespeed of light, and ÃŽÂ ¸is the scattering angle. The quantityhà ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾mecis known as theCompton wavelengthof the electron; it is equal to2.43ÃÆ'-10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢12m. The wavelength shiftÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »is at least zero (forÃŽÂ ¸= 0 °) and at most twice the Compton wavelength of the electron (forÃŽÂ ¸= 180 °). Compton found that some X-rays experienced no wavelength shift despite being scattered through large angles; in each of these cases the photon failed to eject an electron.Thus the magnitude of the shift is related not to the Compton wavelength of the electron, but to the Compton wavelength of the entire atom, which can be upwards of 10à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °000 times smaller. Compton Scattering the scattering of3.html#c4x-raysfrom electrons in a carbon target and found scattered x-rays with a longer wavelength than those incident upon the target. The shift of the wavelength increased with scattering angle according to the Compton formula: Compton explained and modeled the data by assuming a particle (photon) nature for light and applying conservation of energy and conservation of momentum to the collision between the photon and the electron. The scattered photon has lower energy and therefore a longer wavelength according to the2.html#c3Planck relationship. At a time (early 1920s) when the particle (photon) nature of light suggested by the1.html#c2photoelectric effectwas still being debated, the Compton experiment gave clear and independent evidence of particle-like behavior. Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1927 for the discovery of the effect named after him. Compton Scattering Data Comptons original experiment made use of molybdenum K-alpha x-rays, which have a wavelength of 0.0709 nm. These were scattered from a block of carbon and observed at different angles with a2Bragg spectrometer. The spectrometer consists of a rotating framework with a calcite crystal to diffract the x-rays and an ionization chamber for detection of the x-rays. Since the spacing of the crystal planes in calcite is known, the angle of diffraction gives an accurate measure of the wavelength. Examination of the Compton scattering formula shows that the scattered wavelength depends upon the angle of scattering and also the mass of the scattered. For scattering from stationary electrons, the formula gives a wavelength of 0.0733 nm for scattering at 90 degrees. That is consistent with the right-hand peak in the illustration above. The peak which is near the original x-ray wavelength is considered to be scattering off inner electrons in the carbon atoms which are more tightly bound to the carbon nucleus. This causes the entire atom to recoil from the x-ray photon, and the larger effective scattering mass proportionally reduces the wavelength shift of the scattered photons. Putting the entire carbon nuclear mass into the scattering equation yields a wavelength shift almost 22,000 times smaller than that for an unbound electron, so those scattered photons are not seen to be shifted. The scattering of photons from charged particles is called Compton scattering after Arthur Compton who was the first to measure photon-electron scattering in 1922. When the incoming photon gives part of its energy to the electron, then the scattered photon has lower energy and according to the2.html#c3Planck relationshiphas lower frequency and longer wavelength. The wavelength change in such scattering depends only upon the angle of scattering for a given target particle. The constant in the Compton formula above can be written and is called the Compton wavelength for the electron. The formula presumes that the scattering occurs in the rest frame of the electron Compton scattering occurs when the incident x-ray photon is deflected from its original path by an interaction with an electron. The electron is ejected from its orbital position and the x-ray photon loses energy because of the interaction but continues to travel through the material along an altered path. Energy and momentum are conserved in this process. The energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering medium. Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it has a longer wavelength and less penetrating than the incident photon. Compton Effect was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1923 and this discovery led to his award of the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics. The discovery is important because it demonstrates that light cannot be explained purely as a wave phenomenon. Comptons work convinced the scientific community that light can behave as a stream of particles (photons) whose energy is proportional to the frequency. The change in wavelength of the scattered photon is given by: Where: L = wavelength of incident x-ray photon l = wavelength of scattered x-ray photon H = Plancks Constant: The fundamental constant equal to the ratio of the energy E of a quantum of energy to its frequency v: E=hv. me = the mass of an electron at rest C = the speed of light Q = The scattering angle of the scattered photon The applet below demonstrates Compton scattering as calculated with the Klein-Nishina formula, which provides an accurate prediction of the angular distribution of x-rays and gamma-rays that are incident upon a single electron. Before this formula was derived, the electron cross section had been classically derived by the British physicist and discoverer of the electron, J.J. Thomson. However, scattering experiments showed significant deviations from the results predicted by Thomsons model. The Klein-Nishina formula incorporates the Breit-Dirac recoil factor, R, also known as radiation pressure. The formula also corrects for relativistic quantum mechanics and takes into account the interaction of the spin and magnetic moment of the electron with electromagnetic radiation.Quantum mechanics isa system of mechanics based on quantum theory to provide a consistent explanation of both electromagnetic wave and atomic structure. The applet shows that when a photon of a given energy hits an atom, it is sometimes reflected in a different direction. At the same time, it loses energy to an electron that is ejected from the atom. Theta is the angle between the scattered photon direction and the path of the incident photon. Phi is the angle between the scattered electron direction and the path of the incident photon. Derivation of the scattering formula A photonÃŽÂ ³with wavelengthÃŽÂ »is directed at an electronein an atom, which is at rest. The collision causes the electron to recoil, and a new photonÃŽÂ ³Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²with wavelengthÃŽÂ »Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²emerges at angleÃŽÂ ¸. Leteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²denote the electron after the collision. From theconservation of energy, Compton postulated that photons carry momentum;-9-2[3]thus from theconservation of momentum, the momenta of the particles should be related by Assuming the initial momentum of the electron is zero. The photon energies are related to the frequencies by Wherehis thePlanck constant. From therelativistic energy-momentum relation, the electron energies are Along with the conservation of energy, these relations imply that Then From the conservation of momentum, Then by making use of thescalar product, Thus The relation between the frequency and the momentum of a photon ispc=hf, so Now equating 1 and 2, Then dividing both sides by 2hffà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²mec, SincefÃŽÂ »=fà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²=c, Detector characteristics Even large Compton-scatter telescopes have relatively small effective areas. This is because only a small number of the incident gamma-rays actually Compton scatter in the top level. So even if an instrument like COMPTEL has a geometric area of several thousand cm2, the effective area (weighted for the probability of an interaction) is a few tens of cm2. Energy resolution is fairly good for these detectors, typically 5-10% This is limited by uncertainties in the measurements of the energy deposited in each layer. Compton scatter telescopes have wide fields-of-view and can form imageseven though the so-called point spread function (the probability that an event came from a certain area on the sky) is a ring. Applications Compton scattering is of prime importance toradiobiology, as it is the most probable interaction of gamma rays and high energy X rays with atoms in living beings and is applied inradiation therapy.3[4] In material physics, Compton scattering can be used to probe thewave functionof the electrons in matter in the momentum representation. Compton scattering is an important effect ingamma spectroscopywhich gives rise to theCompton edge, as it is possible for the gamma rays to scatter out of the detectors used.Compton suppression is used to detect stray scatter gamma rays to counteract this effect. Inverse Compton scattering Inverse Compton scattering is important inastrophysics. InX-ray astronomy, theaccretion disksurrounding ablack holeis believed to produce a thermal spectrum. The lower energy photons produced from this spectrum are scattered to higher energies by relativistic electrons in the surroundingcorona. This is believed to cause the power law component in the X-ray spectra (0.2-10 keV) of accreting black holes. The effect is also observed when photons from thecosmic microwave backgroundmove through the hot gas surrounding agalaxy cluster. The CMB photons are scattered to higher energies by the electrons in this gas, resulting in theSunyaev-ZelHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunyaev-Zeldovich_effectHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunyaev-Zeldovich_effectdovich effect. Observations of the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect provide a nearly redshift-independent means of detecting galaxy clusters. Some synchrotron radiation facilities scatter laser light off the stored electron beam. This Compton backscattering produces high energy photons in the MeV to GeV rangesubsequently used for nuclear physics experiments. Future developments Current research on Compton telescopes is emphasizing ways of tracking the scattered electron. By measuring the direction of the scattered electron in the top level, a complete solution for the incoming trajectory of the cosmic gamma-ray can be found. This would allow Compton telescopes to have more conventional data analysis approaches since the event circle would no longer exist.

Ict Utilisation And Integration In The Classroom Education Essay

Ict Utilisation And Integration In The Classroom Education Essay Technology can be used to strengthen student learning and enhance pedagogy and can be used effectively as a cognitive tool for teaching and learning in the classroom (Bruce Levin, 2001; Bransford, Brown Cocking, 2000). Teachers use technology for a variety of reasons and these include record keeping, writing lesson plans, creating worksheets and communicating with parents. However, despite the widespread use of technology in schools, it seems that teachers are more inclined to use technology to support their existing practices (such as providing practice drills, demonstration).Previous studies revealed how and why individuals adopt new information technologies (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis Davis, 2003), but it is not known what influences teachers to use technology in their classroom; we need a better understanding of the beliefs that inform these decisions. Previous studies have shown various attributes that can be associated with the utilisation and integration of ICT in the classro om. For instance, teachers attributes is variously grouped into personal characteristics, one of such characteristics: Self-efficacy, perceptions and ease of use(Albion, 2001; Enochs, Riggs, Ellis, 1993; Kellenberger, 1996; Riggs Enochs, 1993; Wang, Ertmer, Newby, 2004a). When a teacher perceives that he or she can effectively use technology in the process of teaching and learning, it will impact that teachers ability to use technology in the classroom. However, the factors that influence self-efficacy beliefs towards technology integration remain largely ambiguous, particularly when examining the possible influences of students attitudes towards technology. These beliefs are likely to be related to each other and they interact dynamically in influencing teachers decisions about the use of technology in the classrooms. Bandura (1997) describes perceived self-efficacy as beliefs in ones capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments. As this applies to the integration of technology into education, self-efficacy beliefs toward technology integration have been theorized to be a determining factor in how well a teacher is able to effectively use technology to improve teaching and learning. Given that teachers act as change agents for technology integration in schools, it is critical to understand the factors that facilitate and those that act as barriers to teachers use of technology in schools. Research has found that teachers belief on the use of technology is influenced by many factors, such as environment, funds, availability of required technologies etc. (Leggett, Persichitte, 1998). The factors can be classified as either arising from the external environments where the teachers work in or the personal characteristics of the teachers (Chai Khine, 2006). While both internal and external conditions affect technology use in classrooms, (Ertmer 2005) argues that although environmental conditions in terms of technological infrastructures have improved, factors pertaining to teachers beliefs are yet to be resolved. . In Nigeria, there are some cultural factors such as religion, belief, age, that can contribute to teachers inability to integrate technology in the clas sroom (can you support this claim with a literature?). In addition, an issue that arises from Nigeria is that only well-trained teachers have enough confidence to actually use ICT as a teaching mechanism in the classroom teaching (Forster,2008). Before the emergence of ICT, pre service teachers were not expose to new modern channels of information, which and will develop in them self-guided learning materials, placing more focus on learning rather than teaching. Insufficient access to computers is one of the main obstacles for ICT programmes. This is particularly relevant for educational institutions located in rural areas where the school or training institution is the only access point for computers. Swarts(2002) noted that government cooperation is necessary for ICT programmes to be sustainable. Its cooperation is needed in order to support the education curriculum system, which is vital for the survival of ICT utilization and classrooms integration (Kozma, 2008). Purpose This study will therefore look into teachers beliefs about technology usage in the classroom among secondary school teachers in Lagos state, the integration of technology into teaching and its teachers influence on the students attitudes toward technology. Significance of study This study will be significant to the following individuals as stated below: Teachers will be aware 0f the key concern driving policy and interest in the pedagogical integration of ICT and the premise that ICT is important for bringing changes to classroom teaching and learning so as to foster the development of students 21st-century skills. It is important because it will help to build up teachers confidence in using technology in general, which would hence increase their intention and willingness to use technology in the future (Yuen Ma, 2008). It is also useful because it will help to develop a school environment which enables teachers to have more hands-on experience in new technologies (Allan, 2007; Fleming et al., 2007), Students may acquire special, these skills include the ability to become lifelong learners within a context of collaborative inquiry and the ability to work and learn from experts and peers in a connected global community (Law, Pelgrum Plomp, 2008;121) Researchers This study would contribute to the limited research in this area and add clarity to the relationships among these beliefs and will help to them suggest ways of convincing teachers to use ICTs in their classrooms because they are indispensable in this technologically globalised era. Question How do teachers beliefs relate to their instructional technology practices in classroom? 2 How do the environmental conditions affect ICTs use in classroom? What obstructs teachers positive belief about ICT integration in the classroom? Literature Review A major gap has always existed between affluent people living in developed societies with access to modern information technology and underprivileged people living in impoverished and rural communities in developing and least developed countries. Even today, an unequal adoption of technology excludes many from harvesting the fruits of the digital economy (Giri,2002). To investigate the factors hindering teachers readiness and confidence in using ICTs, Tella, Tella,Toyobo, Adika Adeyinka (2007) examined Nigerian secondary school teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ uses of ICTs and implications for further development of ICT use in schools using a census of 700 teachers. They found that inadequate knowledge to evaluate the role of ICT in teaching and learning, lack of skills in the use of ICT equipment and software had resulted in a lack of confidence in utilizing ICT tools. This is consistent with Preston (2000) who concluded that lack of technical support to be the key inhibitor to the use of ICT in classroom. As indicated by Bradley and Russell (1997), recurring faults, and the expectation of faults occurring during teaching sessions have reduced teachers confidence and caused teachers to avoid using technology. In addition, obstacles such as access to equipment, time pressures, lack of mentor and opportunities for apprenticeship of observation also have a n impact on teachers ability to use ICT (Slaouti Barton, 2007). Further, teachers workload and time management was found to be inhibiting the implementation of computer instruction in classroom (Guha, 2000). While there is a great deal of studies about how ICT is being used in developed countries, there is not much information on how ICT is being integrated into schools in developing countries (Beukes-Amiss and Chiware, 2006). Investments in ICT for educational innovations and improvements purposes have been continuing, but the need for teachers who will employ it in the classroom as a staple part of the curriculum is disregarded (Niederhauser and Stoddart, 2001; Vacc and Bright, 1999). ICT does not have an educational value in itself, but it becomes precious when teachers use it in the learning and teaching process effectively. As Shakeshaft (1999, p. 4) notes, just because ICT is present does not mean that students are using it. The impact of ICT is strongest when used in a particular content area and further supported by use across the curriculum (Ward and Parr, 2010). Since teachers are the key figures to utilize ICT in educational settings productively and to help integrate ICT into the curriculum, there is every need for them to develop and have positive attitude towards its utilization and efficacy in the classrooms. . ICT promotes a positive attitude towards information technology as an essential p art of a lifelong interest in learning. Teachers also perceive the use of ICT as enhancing recall of previous learning, providing new stimuli, activating the learnerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s response, and providing systematic and steady feedback. It is further perceived as sequencing learning appropriately, and providing access to a rich source of information(Hennessy, Harrison and Wamakote, 2010). For example, Tella et al. (2007) found that computer use by teachers was driven by intentions to use it, and that perceived usefulness was also strongly linked to those intentions. The implication is that teachers will be inclined to use technology if they perceive it to be useful. Furthermore, ICT needs to be linked to specific needs of learners, desisting from the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾one size fits allà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ approach (Leach, 2005, p. 112). It is most effectively used as a learner-centred tool, instead of within a more traditional pedagogy. The real challenge for educationists is, therefore, h ow to harness the potential of ICT to complement the role of a teacher in the teaching and learning process. Roblyer (2002) found that many pre-service teachers are still entering universities with little knowledge of computers and appropriate skills as well as lacking positive attitudes toward ICT use in the classroom. Again, Gunter (2001) states that many higher education institutions are still failing to prepare pre-service teachers for positive technological experiences and utilisation. This will make it difficult for teachers to be able to transfer their ICT skills to their students and encourage them to implement ICT when they themselves have negative belief toward ICT integration in the classrooms (YÄ ±ldÄ ±rÄ ±m, 2000). Many studies indicate that it is teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ attitudes, expertise, lack of autonomy and lack of knowledge to evaluate the use and role of ICT in teaching (or technophobia in teachers) that are the prominent factors hindering teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ readiness and confidence in using ICT support(Hennessy, Harrison Wamakote, 2010). In orde r for ICT to be effectively used in education, a sense of its value needs to exist as well as the expectation that its use will lead to success. Teachers education requires instructional design, and a belief about computers needs to be present if all teachers are to use ICT in their classrooms. Classroom practices need to change in order for ICT to be fully effective, and attitudes of some who may be unwilling to move away from the traditional way of teaching, need to be taken into consideration when training teachers for ICT use (Tella, Tella, Toyobo, Adika Adeyinka,2007). Therefore, teachers perceptions of ICT integration and utilization in the classrooms are somewhat related to the technology acceptance model (TAM) which was originated by Davis in 1986 (Davis, 1989). The model indicates that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are two specific determinants of a users acceptance of a technology. Perceived usefulness indicates the users perception of the extent that the technology will develop and improve his job performance positively. This includes decreasing the time for performing the job, more productivity and accuracy. Perceived ease of use refers to the users perception of amount of the effort necessary for using the system or the extent to which a user believes that employing a specific technology will be easy. Summers (1990) found that the lack of knowledge and experience in the computing area is one of the most common beliefs for teachers negative attitudes towards computers. Selwyn (1997) found that a major deterent to the use of computers by teachers was computer phobia. These teacher anxieties could be caused by psychological factors such as having little or no control over the activity, thinking that they might damage the computer, and feeling that ones self esteem is threatened; sociological factors such as ICT being regarded as a solitary activity, needing to be clever to use one, and being replaced by the computer; and operational factors such as being beyond ones abilities, having to cope with unfriendly jargon, and the likelihood of the technology going wrong. Teachers should be provided with adequate and appropriate support in their classrooms, and be guided by professional standards that incorporate a code of conduct (Semenov,2005). The successful use of computers in the classroom depends on the teachers belief and attitudes towards computers (Lawton Gerschner, 1982). By means of survey and data collection using questionnaire, the study will also explore factors impeding both qualified and prospective secondary school teachers positive beliefs and their future expectations related to utilization and integration of ICTs in the classrooms during teaching and learning. Research design The design adopted in this study is a descriptive survey method. This will allow the researchers to have a complete description of the impact of teachers belief on utilization and integration of ICTs in the classrooms. Population and Sample The population of the study comprised all public and private secondary schools in Lagos state Nigeria. Three hundred secondary school students from both Twenty five percent public and private schools were purposefully selected because it will not be convenient for the researchers to use all the schools in the Lagos state, again they make a good representation of the schools in the state. Then, a number of teachers in each schools were taken.This gives a total of - which their ages ranged between 25years 45 with a mean age of 35 years ( NB we will get the exact fig. from data collection/questionnaire) They consist of -males and -females. Instrument An instrument named Teachers Belief on Utilization and Integration of ICTs in the Classrooms was developed by the researchers and used for data collection. The instruments consists two sections. Section one requested demographic information from the respondents. The second section contains ten questions on likert type response format and the respondents are requested to choose from strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree. The instrument was administered on thirty respondents to ascertain its reliability after modification. Procedure All the 250 teachers used for the study were given questionnaires in their respective schools with permission granted by the various authorities of the schools. The administration took place after the school hour in each school. Before then, the entire respondents were informed about the date of the exercise.A day was allocated for two schools. This mean that 15 days was used to cover all the 30 schools selected in which the respondents were selected.(NB pls note how many questionnaires were administered and no. that were valid) Method of data analysis Data collected were analyzed using chi square and why?/? Recommendation( this is just a guess and to know whether it is in line with how it is beig written) The findings showed that most teachers perceived ICT as very useful and as making teaching and learning easier but still do not believe in utilization and integrating them during teaching and learning especially in Nigerian situation where there is no steady power supply, cost of the equipment, unavailability of the ICTs in most schools,lack of expertertise especially in public schools, etc. It was recommended that professional development policies should support ICT-related teaching models, in particular those that encourage both students and teachers to play an active role in teaching activities. Additionally, emphasis should be placed on the pedagogy underlying the use of ICTs for teaching and learning.

Ling :: essays research papers

a) The underlined group of words is a noun phrase I know it is a noun phrase because a cat is a thing and fits the description of a noun. The grammatical function of the underlined group of words is subject. I applied a tag question to determine this was the subject. In absence of an operator I used the base do. So the sentence now reads The cat did fall out of the tree. Because the operator is the first word of the verb phrase it takes the tense. To get a question I move the operator to the front of the sentence so it now reads Did the cat fall out of the tree? Any words that are between the movement is the subject. So the cat is the subject. b) The subject The cat is a patient. I know this because fell is an intransitive verb so nothing is suffering the effect of the cat. It is not an experiencer because it is not attributed any emotional response. The cat is suffering an action. This sentence could be the response given by a child to the question ‘What happened to the cat?’ Knowing he would be in trouble if he admits he shot the cat with a bb gun the child tries to distance himself from the act by telling his parents ‘The cat fell out of the tree.’ Under this interpretation it is a patient subject.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  B. The senator was praised by several members of the press. a) The underlined group of words is a prepositional phrase. The test I used to determine it was a prepositional phrase was the ‘airplane and cloud’ test. That is if the beginning of the phrase is an action a plane would with a cloud it is a preposition. In this case a plane can fly ‘by’ a cloud. The grammatical function of the prepositional phrase is predicate. b) The semantic role of the underlined group of words is agent. The subject The senator is the recipient of the action of the press. Also the voice of this sentence is passive so I know the prototypical agent/patent semantic roles are reversed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  C. The waiter forced the rowdy customers to leave the restaurant. a) The underlined group of words is a noun phrase I know it is a noun phrase because the rowdy customers are people and fit the description of a noun.

Analysis of Alice Walkers short story, Nineteen Fifty-five Essay

Analysis of Alice Walker's short fictional story, "Nineteen Fifty-five" Alice Walker's short fictional story, "Nineteen Fifty-five", revolves around the encounters among Gracie Mae Still, the narrator, and Traynor, the "Emperor of Rock and Roll." Traynor as a young prospective singer purchases a song from Mrs. Still, which becomes his "first hit record" and makes him rich and famous. Yet, he does not "even understand" the song and spends his entire life trying to figure out "what the song means." The song he sings seems as fictional as certain events in this story, but as historical as Traynor's based character, Elvis Presley. On one hand, the narrator chronologically describes historic events, which occurred during Elvis's life. Starting in 1955 when Traynor, just like Elvis, at age sixteen, started his career as a singer. Moreover, the narrator describes Traynor similarly to the way Elvis looked as a young boy, "about five feet nine, sort of womanish looking, with real dark and white skin and a red pouting mouth" with "black and curly" hair. Also they both appeared to look "like a Loosianna creole" and from south Louisiana. In the south, equally to Traynor, Elvis grew up around African people where he "learned to sing and dance." One year later in 1956 Traynor, performs on "channel 5" and like Elvis starting getting high around this time "looking half asleep from the neck up, but kind of awake in a nasty way from the waist down." Furthermore, when Elvis performed he would do the same "nasty little jerk" Traynor did, which fans screeched and screamed over. During 1957, the narrator points out that Traynor gave her a Cadillac in appreciation for selling him her song. Elvis did not give a Cadillac specifically t... ...e copied it "exactly" like he copied "someone else's record" he still did not have "a clue what marriage meant." The narrator later points out that there "couldn't be nothing worse than being famous the world over for something you don't even understand." Indeed, when on the Carson show Traynor says to Mrs. Still that his fans been squealing for yrs and they don't know what they squealing about, which made "no more sense than hogs." At the show, after the real person behind the song, Mrs. Still sang, the audience clapped "politely for about two seconds." Then once Traynor sand the "imitation" of the song the fans went wild and starting squealing. The fans seem to only cheer for something that is fake, just like when they "was crying and crying and didn't even know what they was crying for." Thus, explains why "one day this is going to be a pitiful country."

Leibniz: Theory of Monads

Introduction Whether ultimately correct or not, Leibniz rejects both Cartesianism and atomism. What ought not be missed is that throughout his objections Leibniz's focus never strays far from the mereological issues of wholes, parts, their unity, etc. Indeed, the very nature of his arguments against the mechanist project clearly demonstrate Leibniz's underlying concern for the problem of the continuum, which seems never very far from his mind. (Thompson) In rejecting Cartesianism, Leibniz's concern is with its inability to make sense of the whole, except at the expense of the reality of the parts. In rejecting atomism, his concern is with its inability to make sense of the parts, except at the expense of the unity of the whole. Neither can provide illumination sufficient to escape from the second labyrinth, and the entire mechanist project therefore finds itself impaled effectively on both horns of a dilemma. Since the problem of the continuum has so much relevance to the unity of substance, Leibniz considers mechanist philosophy inadequate. (Brown) Remaining entirely in character, it should not be surprising that Leibniz's own metaphysics is most fundamentally an attempt to reconcile the mechanistic philosophy to that of Aristotle. He attempts to take the best of each of these two systems and synthesize a new theory that manages to escape their individual defects. (Thompson)   Monads are the unit of substance which supposedly bridge the gap between the old and the new, and plug the holes in mechanist theories. Thus, it is with this in mind that his argument for the existence of monads must be examined, for it is the very heart of Leibniz's theory of substance. At the core of Leibniz's metaphysics one finds monads, which are dimensionless and â€Å"windowless† centers of force, the true substances that comprise the created universe. Infinite hierarchies of monads populate the continuum of all created things, each one mirroring the rest of the universe from its own unique point of view, expressing every other monad with a greater or lesser degree of clarity. Monads are the â€Å"metaphysical points†, so to speak, which are the indivisible, unified, and simple substances that are the foundation of the created world. (Mercer) Distinguishing Features of Leibniz's Ontology There are two particularly significant distinguishing features of Leibniz's ontology as a whole. In brief, Leibniz's ontology remains as true to his desire to be the great reconciler as it does to his expectations for substance, epistemology, and the problem of the continuum. This ought not be forgotten amidst the details that follow. Monads are a Synthesis of Old and New It is not surprising, in light of Leibniz's reconciliatory nature, that monads bear hallmarks of both Aristotelian and mechanistic philosophy. In terms of the former, they do the work of substantial forms, possessing an entelechy which guarantees that they unfold through time as they ought. In terms of the latter, they do the work of atoms, explaining how features in the phenomenal world (i.e., the macro-level world) come about as a result of changes of state in the real world of monads (i.e., the micro-level world). The monad is, by its very definition, designed to leverage the strengths of the two opposing theories, while simultaneously inheriting none of their defects. (Mercer) From this it is clear that Leibniz's theory of substance is determined by his expectations, and by the perceived failures of mechanism. In assembling it, Leibniz borrows liberally from what he considers the best features of the old and the new. Regarding those aspects in which Leibniz finds either of them inadequate, he crafts his own philosophy so that it avoids said inadequacies, essentially by definition. Qualitative, not Quantitative What is arguably most interesting and quite unique about this synthesis of systems is the shift in focus. To elucidate, Leibniz sees the mechanist philosophy as a fundamentally quantitative and extensive endeavor. The Cartesian defines the very essence of body as extension, which is quantitative in its extensive nature. Similarly, the atomist cannot help but construct the macro-level world by aggregation, through the grouping of many extended entities in the micro-level world, which is also quantitative by nature. Both variants of mechanism therefore sustain a quantitative and extensive view of the relationships between wholes and parts, explaining or reducing qualitative features of the macro-level world in light of or to quantitative features of the micro-level world. (Mercer) Given the problems he finds with quantitative theories, Leibniz concludes that that the correct theory must instead be uniquely qualitative and intensive, rather than quantitative and extensive, and this unique notion is given flesh along very Aristotelian lines. Latta (1965) provides the following apt description: Accordingly, the essence of Leibniz's argument is that a quantitative conception of the relation of whole and parts affords an inadequate theory of substance. The common element in the contrary positions of the Cartesians and the Atomists is the explicit or implicit reduction of qualitative to quantitative differences. And it appears to Leibniz that the solution of the dilemma is to be found in the opposite hypothesis, namely, that the essence of substance is non-quantitative, and that the relation of whole and parts must be conceived as intensive rather than extensive. Thus a ‘simple substance' has no parts, i.e. no quantitative elements, and yet it must comprehend a manifold in unity; that is to say, it must be real, it must be something, it must be qualitative, specifically determined. (p. 27). The suggested intensive view of the relations between parts and wholes is noteworthy for its novelty if nothing else. What Leibniz seems to have in mind is that the parts of a whole somehow â€Å"participate† in that whole, and similarly that the whole somehow â€Å"participates† in all of its parts. The nature of this participation isn't entirely clear, but it is certain that the conception Leibniz holds is not the traditional understanding of the part-whole relation. There is something deeper at work here, some understanding that is intended to allow both the parts and the whole to remain distinct and unified, the parts in themselves and the whole through its special relationship to the parts. (Thompson) What Leibniz seeks is some sense in which the whole somehow mirrors or expresses all of its parts, containing within itself the explanation for why the parts are precisely as they are. And similarly, the parts must somehow mirror or express the larger whole as well, containing within themselves their explanations, while also mirroring the explanation of the whole, albeit with a lesser degree of clarity. The important degree of mutual inter-participation is what is key to the more organic or holistic relationship Leibniz intends. (Swoyer) Despite the present vagueness, however, this much remains clear: Leibniz believes that the part-whole relation in genuine unities must be something far more special than other philosophical systems have taken it to be. Leibniz's use of monads is therefore intended not only to reconcile Aristotle with the mechanists, but also to lay the groundwork necessary to make such a special relationship logically possible and plausible. (Thompson) The Argument From â€Å"The Monadology† In the first few sentences of â€Å"The Monadology†, Leibniz gives one formulation of his argument for the existence of monads, a formulation which might be described most charitably as terse. Though this is not the only argument Leibniz gives for monads, it is probably the most well known. As early as 1671, for example, Leibniz argues for monads qua indivisible unextended things, though in a much different fashion involving the proper beginnings of extended entities. (1969, p. 139-140) Because his earlier argument is even more terse than the later argument it shall not be discussed any further. It is worth mentioning only because its similarities mark it as a clear precursor for Leibniz's later thinking on the subject. Further, Leibniz claims elsewhere that the existence of monads may be inferred from his doctrine of the pre-established harmony, though his reasons for this remain obscure. (1985, p.80) Returning to the better known argument of â€Å"The Monadology†, while it would be unreasonable to fault Leibniz for his brevity in making the argument, it is nevertheless the case that much remains to be said before the argument can be accepted, rejected, or even understood adequately. Because the monad is at the very heart of Leibniz's metaphysics, one might reasonably expect a more complete formulation of his argument to be possible, just as one might expect Leibniz's critics to focus their attacks upon that argument if monads qua simple substances are to be rejected. For the purposes of this essay, it is necessary to understand this argument and the issues underlying it in order to make clear precisely how Leibniz takes the monad to be united and simple. The following is Leibniz's argument for the existence of monads as given in â€Å"The Monadology†: The Monad, of which we shall here speak, is nothing but a simple substance, which enters into compounds. By ‘simple' is meant ‘without parts.' 2.  Ã‚   And there must be simple substances, since there are compounds; for a compound is nothing but a collection or aggregatum of simple things. (1989, p.213) Common Sense Observations Relevant Observations For Leibniz, the observations relevant to a theory of substance are those of entities in the world. As established already, Leibniz simply looks at the world and takes inventory of what he sees. Among the entities perceived he finds what might be called â€Å"macro entities† of a relatively mundane variety such as tables, chairs, rocks, streams, etc., as well as perhaps not so mundane macro entities such as plants, animals and persons. With the aid of the microscope, one may similarly perceive â€Å"micro entities† both mundane (e.g., crystals) and not so mundane (e.g., unicellular organisms). Further, with the aid of a telescope, one may perceive entities at the large end of the macro scale, if not, in fact, objects of an altogether different order of size. (Mercer) There are two primary points of interest as regards this body of observations. The first is that each entity, because it has extension, is divisible into parts. The second is that despite this divisibility into parts, the entities in question are more or less unities in some sense; i.e., each entity is numerically one, and it is what it is rather than something else. To put these two points a bit differently, this body of observations indicates that for all such objects there seems to be a unified whole, just as there seems also to be discernable parts, which are similarly real and unified. A third less interesting but important point is that in each case one seems to find entities at every scale. No matter how high one turns up the telescope or the microscope, one never reaches the end of things. Wherever one looks, one finds worlds within worlds. Existing Theories This body of observations requires explanation. More to the point, Leibniz takes this body of observations to require an explanation in terms of some sort of substance. In virtue of what is it the case that some particular entity is a whole? In virtue of what is it the case that the parts of that entity are themselves both unified and real? Further, what relations are sustained between the wholes and their parts? And finally, what conclusions may be drawn more generally once answers to these questions have been established? These are the sorts of questions Leibniz has in mind when considering existing theories. A successful theory must address them adequately without falling into either internal conceptual contradiction or external contradiction. That is, the theory must cohere with the present body of observations, just as its predictions (if any may be made) must also cohere with both present and future observations. (Thompson) In terms of evaluating mechanist theories, there are only two that Leibniz takes as plausible candidates, Cartesianism and atomism. As established already, Leibniz considers both of these views to be inadequate for explaining the body of observations under consideration. Having already examined Leibniz's reasons for rejecting these systems in some detail we may move directly to the next step, which involves synthesizing a new theory that avoids the inadequacies of mechanism while embracing its strengths. A Novel Theory of Substance If both ends of the spectrum of mechanist philosophy are unacceptable, then why not head for the middle? Leibniz is convinced of unities in the world because of a wealth of observations, and he believes both the Cartesians and the atomists to be unable to explain such unities with their theories. (Thompson, p. 24-6) What is needed according to Leibniz is a theory whose fundamental unit of substance is both real and indivisible. It must be real for the obvious reason that it simply will not do to explain what does exist by appeal to what does not, and it must be indivisible in such a fashion that it may explain the genuine unity of the observed entities in the world. Further, it must provide a qualitative and intensive, rather than quantitative and extensive, construal of the part-whole relation, as previously discussed. Leibniz concludes, therefore, that what is needed is a new, basic unit of substance:  Ã¢â‚¬ ¦physical points are indivisible only in appearance; mathematical points are exact, but they are merely modalities. Only metaphysical points or points of substance (constituted by forms or souls) are exact and real, and without them there would be nothing real, since without true unities there would be no multitude. (1989, 142) This conclusion, which lays the foundation for the development of the remainder of Leibniz's metaphysics, owes its support to the two factors given earlier as motivations. Most central to it is the fundamental assumption that monadic unity is necessary â€Å"at bottom† for the production of all compound things. In light of this, it is possible to summarize the more complete formulation of Leibniz's argument for monads as follows: P1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Common sense observations show that real, unified entities exist. P2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is real may be explained only by appeal to something real. P3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is unified may be explained only by appeal to something indivisible. C  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Therefore, the explanation for such entities in the world must involve real and indivisible substances, namely, monads. This bears little relation, prima facie, to the less detailed argument given in the first two sections of â€Å"The Monadology†, but it is nevertheless reducible to that argument. P1 amounts to nothing more than the initial premise that compounds exist. P2 and P3 do not appear at all in â€Å"The Monadology†, but it is tolerably clear from the preceding discussion that these principles are indeed assumed by Leibniz. Finally, the conclusion is just a restatement of the conclusion that monads exist. Again, to restate the argument more succinctly: compounds exist, therefore simples exist. The remainder of Leibniz's metaphysical deductions in â€Å"The Monadology† follow from this more complete formulation at least as well as they follow the abbreviated version. Because monads must be both real and indivisible, Leibniz may argue that they can have neither extension nor form and must therefore be immaterial. Because they cannot be divided, Leibniz may still maintain that they cannot go out of existence in any natural way, by the dissolution of parts. Similarly, they cannot come into existence in any natural way, by the aggregation of parts, and so forth. Thus, this more complete formulation of the argument acts as a â€Å"drop in replacement† for its far more concise sibling. Conclusion To summarize, Leibniz's argument for monads is an enthymeme, an argument with an implied premise. Examining the logical derivation suggests a line of thought that Leibniz's other writings explicitly affirm, namely, that there is no reality without unity. With this additional premise in hand, the argument for monads is rendered formally valid. What's more, this additional premise provides a starting point for untangling the issues previously suggested as problems for monadic simplicity. The close tie between reality and unity prompts one to consider what Leibniz means by ‘simple' in a different light. It seems that what he intends in his argument for monads is not merely that they have no parts, but rather that they also include a kind of indivisibility, an inability to be divided in any way that destroys them. If there is no reality without unity, then things that are fatally separable and thus not unified are not intrinsically real. The relation between reality and unity helps suggest the fatal inseparability criterion for simplicity. Further, it also seems that mereological simplicity and fatal inseparability are but negative entailments of a more positive construal of simplicity, namely, ontological simplicity. A thing is ontologically simple if it stands alone, or described negatively if it is self sufficient in the sense that it bears no internal relations of ontological dependence to any other thing. Such an understanding of simplicity resolves the problems raised previously for the mereological construal, helps to make sense of Leibniz's argument for monads, and coheres nicely with the various other texts in which Leibniz uses the term. References Brown, Stuart. The Young Leibniz and His Philosophy. Dordrecht: Kluwer AcademicPublishers, 1999. Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. (1969) Philosophical Papers and Letters, 2d ed. Translated and edited by Leroy E. Loemker. Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. (1985) Theodicy. Translated by E. M. Huggard, edited by Austin Farrer. Open Court Publishing Company. Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. (1965) The Monadology and other Philosophical Writings. Translated and edited by Robert Latta. London: Oxford University Press. Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. (1989) Philosophical Essays. Translated and edited by Roger Ariew and Daniel Garber. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. Mercer, Christia. Leibniz's Metaphysics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Swoyer, Chris. (1995) Leibnizian Expression. Journal of the History of Philosophy 33 (1), 65-99. Thompson, Garrett. On Leibniz. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2001.